This paper was written during an undergraduate program in approximately 2007, with the help of a mentor.
“Hidden identities”
This push in the dominant society was met with resistance. This idea of resistance by Native Americans and African Americans unions is the history of multiracial people and their resistance to imposed racial identity.[13] Self-identity is a matter of sovereignty. The edited text cited here has many essays that reflect on the history on multiracial people and their resistance to imposed racial identity. An author, [JL3] Jessica M. Rooney, gives accolade to the author Katz by stating he created a new paradigm in the more accurate telling of the mixed heritage of African Americans and Native Americans. She does a review of other authors who are examining early southern history, some of which are referenced in this paper, and states that there is little reference to multiracial (that is Native and African) existence of the early southeast. Usually Native American and African American mixed persons are put in different categories. Some reference to Native American and African American unions are found in the work of Perdue contrary to what Jessica M. Rooney states. The appearance of Cherokees varied. This could be due to the heritage of Cherokee to accept women and children of enemies as part of the tribe, and due to the fact that Cherokees mixed with African American as well making it harder for an observer of a Euro-decent to distinguish. “ …The Cherokees, he observed, had “less regularity” in their appearance than other Indians.” [14] The author was referencing the history of Cherokees saying that it had been a universal custom to take in and raise, women and children of enemies after battles.
My research will explore information on hidden
racial identities and the survival of multiracial individuals who were mixed
with particularly Cherokee, and other ethnicities. The ethnicities mixed with
Cherokee include African-American, and Euro-American. My research will look at
how identity amongst “mixed blood”, “Black Indians”, “multiracial” people was
sometimes hidden in the Southeastern part of the United States between the
eighteenth and twenty-first centuries. On one hand, if a multiracial person was
of Native descent, he or she had to hide this fact to escape Indian removal
and/or discrimination, and sometimes enslavement. On the other hand, if a
multiracial person was of “Negro blood,” he or she had to hide this fact for
fear of enslavement and/or discrimination. In all cases, the hiding of
multiracial identity was a method of avoiding discriminatory practices and
ultimately a means of survival.
Many of the text used in this research showed a
great deal of resistance from multiracial persons through out the 17th
through the 21st century to the dominant Caucasian society that
tried to force their hegemonic views of cultural politics, economics, and
social moray’s. The resistance of multiracial individuals was fluid and
ever changing, due largely to the political, economical and social climates at
each time period in opposition to the dominant society. Never the less,
their were some people who were of mixed racial ancestry that hid their
multiracial identity in order to avoid discrimination and gain acceptance by
their tribes and/or the dominant society and some who out right resisted any
racial classification.
The method of hiding ones identity for survival for
Cherokee may have started within the time of the Indian removals.
Cherokees who could pass as another race did, in order to avoid removal.
“But not all the Indians had left Georgia. Many compassionate white
families suddenly acquired relative with what looked like deep suntans.
Who would question a white mans word about his Auntie Nancy, recently come to
live with her nephew.”[1]
The story of the Cherokee Trail of Tears and other Eastern Tribes in the early
part of the nineteenth century can express who had an opportunity to run away
and avoid removal.
People who were of mixed blood had a harder time
than people who were full blood during this period because they were not
accepted into the larger dominant society or within their own tribe. [2]
This author expresses caution when approaching living elders in regards to
their past because of the tumultuous history of American Indians and the
difficulty of mixed blood people to be identified as such. Due to
the hardship that was endured by mixed bloods who were rejected from their own
land and from their own people, this lead mix people into alternate means of
survival such as denying their Cherokee linage. [JL1] “Cherokees
who escaped the rifle and bayonet of the United States Army under General
Winfield Scott had to cease to exist as Cherokees. But, inwardly,
spiritually and emotionally, they remembered. Their descendants remember
still.” [3]
[JL2] In
deed, over 175 years later we have remembered today to tell the stories of our
ancestors.
Cherokees avoided discrimination, hiding in the
hills to escape the period of Indian removals. An example is expressed in the
same text there was a family of Cherokees in North Carolina fleeing into to the
hills in a cave with other Cherokees families to avoid removal.[4]
These families were not just hiding their identities in order to avoid
discrimination; they were actually physically hiding as well. Similarly,
this story of Cherokees families running to the hills to hide was talked about
in my family as well. Sometimes families were separated during the period
of removals this may be what have occurred with my great-great grandmother who was
on a census one year with her parents and the next year she was on another
families, possible relatives. “When the capturing of the Indians began,
it took men from their fields, children from their play, and women from their
kitchens. Two children fled into the woods ahead of the soldiers marching
determinedly down red clay Georgia lanes. The troops seized the mother.
She begged them to wait until she could find her children” The soldiers took
her to the stockade anyway and there is no mention of the children again.[5]
It is estimated that a majority of African
Americans have some Native American ancestry. “Gradually, elements of the
two populations merged, so that most American Blacks came to have a substantial
admixture of Native American ancestry.”[6]
This is important to establish because this information was not forthright in
documents noting race like census and marriage licenses. This is important
because some text no longer mention this tri-linage but refer to black and
white mix, mulatto. Hiding ones identity in the African American
community or literally physically hiding was used to survive.
A person of mixed ancestry could use a method of “passing” into a dominant
white society as appearing as a non-colored or “white person”.[7]
In the 1800’s there was a notice for a person passing as white, who the
authorities were trying to track down. “One Hundred Dollars Reward.-Ran
away from the subscriber a bright mulatto slave, named Sam. Light, sandy
hair, blue eyes, ruddy complexion; is so white as very easily to pass for a
free white man.–April 22, 1837, Edwin Peck, Mobile”. [8]
A historical impression of mixed persons in the Native Community and African
American community has been at times a negative one. Often mixed bloods
were thought of as someone trying to hold an elite status, benefiting
monetarily or socially from a lighter skin color. Although this may have
an accurate telling of what sometimes occurred with multiracial people, they
have historically been mistreated because of their mixed ancestry. “But b
lack and brown slaves were vociferous in story and song in their contempt for
“yellow” people, whom they regarded as flighty, prideful, and lacking in
loyalty.”[9]
Another example in the text were mixed people were treated harshly due to their
diverse lineage is “Some of these received special treatment from their White
relatives, but others suffered special scorn from both White and Black.
As long as slavery lasted, most people of mixed ancestry were simply slaves.”
This labeling of sorts was because the United States forced a two cast system;
Black or white.[10]
Passing was an act used by multiracial persons who hid their African American
ancestry to survive. In the 1960’s there was a strong political push to
be a Pro Black community in an attempt to unify the African American community,
who had been previously divided along the lines of different hues of skin color.[11]
This act of unification unintentionally left out Native American Ancestry from
African American identity.
There was an ignored history of African American
and Native Americans unions. The historical evidence shows the allegiance of
these two peoples and their fight against the dominant ‘white’ society, which
did not want the mixing of these two races for fear of a revolt against the
dominant population. [12]
The author cited here also states the fact that a good number of African
Americans have Native American ancestry but are unaware or do not identify as
such due partially to a pro-black movement in the civil rights era of the 1960s
and an earlier push in American history by a dominant white society that tried
to separate the two races.
This push in the dominant society was met with resistance. This idea of resistance by Native Americans and African Americans unions is the history of multiracial people and their resistance to imposed racial identity.[13] Self-identity is a matter of sovereignty. The edited text cited here has many essays that reflect on the history on multiracial people and their resistance to imposed racial identity. An author, [JL3] Jessica M. Rooney, gives accolade to the author Katz by stating he created a new paradigm in the more accurate telling of the mixed heritage of African Americans and Native Americans. She does a review of other authors who are examining early southern history, some of which are referenced in this paper, and states that there is little reference to multiracial (that is Native and African) existence of the early southeast. Usually Native American and African American mixed persons are put in different categories. Some reference to Native American and African American unions are found in the work of Perdue contrary to what Jessica M. Rooney states. The appearance of Cherokees varied. This could be due to the heritage of Cherokee to accept women and children of enemies as part of the tribe, and due to the fact that Cherokees mixed with African American as well making it harder for an observer of a Euro-decent to distinguish. “ …The Cherokees, he observed, had “less regularity” in their appearance than other Indians.” [14] The author was referencing the history of Cherokees saying that it had been a universal custom to take in and raise, women and children of enemies after battles.
There are chapters on multiracial identity between
American Indians and African Americans within this edited text. The
author Denene Anne-Marguerite De Quintal did interviews of people of mixed
racial decent and quotes authors such as Willson and Mihesuah and concludes
that “By being categorized as Black based on their phenotype, many Black Native
Americans find themselves isolated from the Native American community, since
their “Blackness” seems to invalidate their Native American heritage.” [15]
A dominant society pushing two-cast system of classification can be found as
one of the root causes for overlooking of multiracial individuals. This
idea is examined in multiple texts referenced within this paper. This is
also the reason that multiracial individuals hid their identity.
Sovereignty is unmistakable connected to identity.
When a person is forced to hide their identity, this is really a matter of
sovereignty. Sovereignty is a matter of retaining one’s agency.
This is an ability to direct one’s own future. No other person,
institution, or law has the right to label another person. The act of
labeling, categorizing, and racially discriminating against someone goes
against that individual’s self-determination. No outside force has the
right to determine a person’s identity. A person’s identity, his or her
own perception of self, is endowed to each person through a genetic set of
characteristics or some would say from a “Creator”. No one or no power
has the right to deny someone of knowledge of his or her ancestors, culture,
and perspective and to decide how and to what degree that one may pay homage,
honor, and give way for the young in the future.
Today such grievances still take place, within
different fields of work in the modern world and even within academia.
There are even such grievances within members of the same race and culture and
sometimes within the same family, even divisions within ones self of how we
judge another. How we place judgment upon someone even if it is a
categorical type of action for the greatest of causes such as helping someone
get funding for higher education, to meet a quota of for equal opportunity
employment to compy with law, to do work for a good cause such as research in a
particular community, to help change a negative circumstance, runs the risk of
inaccuracy and misrepresenting an individual and their descendants possible
physical, mental and even spiritual health, as well as their descendants
identities and fostering a sense of community in future generations yet to come
to pass.
Identity within Cherokee community particularly
African American mixed identity was eventually turned into something
undesirable in the mind set of Cherokees mixed with Euro-ancestry or full
bloods due to the profits that some Cherokees took in slave trade and the
racism towards African Americans that existed in the early Southeast.
Blacks and Cherokee attitude toward interracial marriage sharply differ.[16]
The author cited here uses records from federal projects of the 1930’s states
that, “The acceptability of interracial sex and interracial unions
depended on the race of the non Cherokee partner”.[17]
In other word noting that whites acceptable as partners blacks were not.
The author states that this desirability had an impact on the Cherokee
community particularly those who had African American descent. “
Cherokees then turned to the concepts of race defining Cherokees in opposition
to other groups, and legal citizenship, the enactment of special legislation,
to establish Cherokee identity.”
These enactments of legislation to distinguish who
is Cherokee and who is not have continued through till the present moment.
Self Identity as a matter of sovereignty is what the Cherokee Nation in 2007
are trying to exclude African American Cherokees claiming that they are not of
Cherokee blood. This claim is grossly inaccurate. “In an article on
Black congressional leaders supporting Cherokee Freedman. (Pg15 News from
Indian country: The Nations Native Journal. April 2nd, 2007) Ben
Evan describes Black congressional leaders requested the U.S. congress to
consider a vote passed by the Cherokee Nation (76 percent) aimed at expelling
Cherokee Freedman from the tribe earlier this year. The article states
that the federal government spends millions of dollars on programs each year,
some of which include programs in Oklahoma. Many U.S. congressmen and
women wrote a letter to the director of the Interior Departments Bureau of
Indian Affairs to examine the ruling. A spokesperson from the Cherokee
Nation said that the ruling had to do with making sure non -Indians with no
ancestral record of Indian blood would be excluded. A statement that
accurately reflects the identity of Black Cherokee’s is given by a
congressperson, “The black descendant Cherokees can trace their Native
American heritage back in many cases for more than a century,” said
Representative Dian Watson, Democrat from Calif. “They are legally a part
of the Cherokee Nation through history, precedent, blood and treaty
obligations.”
In the article on “Racism and the Cherokee Nation”
(Pg. 38 News from Indian country: The Nations Native Journal. April 2nd,
2007) William Loren Katz describes that the recent ruling of the Cherokee
Nation is based on racist views of the Cherokee Nation. The author states that
a spokesperson for the Cherokee Freedman says that voters with in the Cherokee
Nation were tricked into thinking that Cherokee Freedmen were not Cherokee by
blood. The author explains how since the first landing of slave ships to
the America’s Indigenous peoples and descendent of Africa forge unions to
combat the invasion and enslavement of Native people and African Americans.
The authors conclude that it is a travesty that Cherokee decedents are fighting
racism with of Cherokees that shared a common struggle even 300 years later.
He states “Marilyn Vann, president of the Descendants of Freedman of the Five
Civilized Tribes, has long fought racism from both governmental officials and
Indigenous figures.” The author goes on to state that the Cherokee Nations
looks upon with acceptance of Caucasian mixed blood persons but not African
American.
In the Article, Analysis of Blood Politics, Racial
Classification, and Cherokee National Identity: The Trial and Tribulations of
the Cherokee Freedmen by Circe Sturm, the author explores how racial ideologies
have filtered from the national to the local level, where they have been
internalized, manipulated, and resisted in different ways by Cherokee citizens
and Cherokee freedmen. Also, the author expresses that as a result of
this continuing dialectic between the national and the local, many Cherokees
express contradictory consciousness, because they resent discrimination on the
basis of race and yet use racially hegemonic concepts to legitimize their
social identities and police their political boundaries. The author also
expresses that currently, there is discrimination amongst Cherokee’s in regards
to African Ancestry and that tribal benefits should be revaluated.
The author offers an analysis answering the
question of why the Cherokee Freedman experience is not widely known or
formulated. The author states that the Cherokee people have a long history of
sociopolitical exclusionism of multiracial individuals of Cherokee and African
ancestry, who are treated in different ways from multiracial individuals with
Cherokee and European ancestry. Cherokees that descended from “Cherokee by
blood” according to the Dawes Rolls, even though many Cherokee Freedmen were
blood descendants but were categorized as Cherokee Freedman for because of how
they looked, and many did not register with any roll whatsoever. The
author alludes to the fact that the Dawes Act was an attack against native
sovereignty, breaking up land ownership and labeling Cherokees as Intermarried,
Freedman, or Cherokee by blood. The Cherokee Nation later used this
against Cherokee Freedman; even though this labeling was wrong and was a result
racial divides during the 1800’s within the Cherokee Nation and with the larger
population of the Southeastern United states as a whole.
The crux of the article is a great example of
Native American Sovereignty. Any decedents of Cherokee people have every
right to identify themselves and such and have rights to any agreement of
treaties with the federal government whether or not their brothers and sisters,
distant cousins or other people within the Cherokee Nation believe they belong
or not. It is a very saddening affair that there is such discrimination
and racial injustice between Native peoples, especially when one considers the
tumultuous history of Native Americans of the Southeast United States.
Currently in Oklahoma, the struggle of Cherokee Freedman goes on today.
Unfortunately dissention amongst Native Americans does not stop there.
There are Natives from the reservation, those from the city, those who are more
traditional, and those who take on more modern values that don’t necessarily
get along with one another. There has always been tension with those who
are from mixed racial descent compared with those who are full blooded, or
fully documented as “authentic” within a certain time period.
In Theda Perdue’s work “Mixed Blood” Indians: Racial
Construction in the Early South examines the notion of a dominant society
asserting its will. “And finally, it drives a wedge between the members
of a Native community by using “blood” to privilege some individuals and to
discredit others, and ultimately to radicalize Native societies in ways that
are foreign to Native cultural traditions.” [18]
This author also sites a case of a slave of African American decent being
offered as payment to a Cherokee man for the death of a family member in the
1700’s. This Cherokee man married this women who was adopted into the
tribe and their decedents where considered Cherokee. The author goes on
to state that increasingly in the 1800’s this was not a typical case because
run away slaves had a bounty on their heads and this was a way that the dominant
society put a wedge between African Americans and Native Americans. “The
absence of a uniform census makes the slave population among the southern
Indians before 1860 difficult to calculate, but the rolls compiled in
preparation for their removal east of the Mississippi provide some indication
of the extent of slaveholding.” This statement uses “some indication”
this may be due to the fact that census takers were often under the influence
of racism. If a person looked phonetically black they may not have been
included in the Cherokee census. Or counted as slave when they were not.
This exclusion may have been deliberate, because of the distain of any one with
“one drop of slave blood”.
In my own research of the census rolls that I
gathered at the Tennessee National archives in 2003, a question a census
interviewer asks evokes an answer by one Amanda F. Fuqua who was rejected from
a roll answered a question in # 9 in a application number 39898 wrote out
referring to her ancestors “No they were not slaves” showing that for whatever
be the reason, the question of African American Blood had to be distinguished
when classifying rolls for eastern band Cherokee decedents.
Alicia Tiya an author that examined that,
multiracial individuals resisted the classification by external forces. “At
every point in their story they straddled and stripped the categories cast to
enclose them—by government agents, slaveholders, and even historians.”[19]
She expresses the injustice that multiracial individuals faced in opposition to
a dominant society classifying them. “African Americans were excised from
relationship with Native people, who were in fact their family members, fellow
tribal members, and in to many cases former masters.”[20]
In this dissertation the author seeks to study the history of Cherokees and
blacks in the history of the southeast and Indian Territory in the west.
The author examines using an interdisciplinary approach to examine the lack of
this history in previous works and anticipates that this work will bridge a
relation between these groups that crosses traditional boundaries of race,
region and forge a new perspective. [21]
There is a collection of works that lists the
government rolls of registered Cherokees throughout the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries. The work includes the famous Dawes rolls, which are
used today by the Cherokee Nation to determine if a person is of Cherokee
descent. The text states that many people on all of the rolls that were
created during this time period did not officially become apart of the rolls.[22]
The government-imposed rolls discriminated between people who were Cherokee by
blood, Cherokee Freedman, and Cherokee by marriage. A Cherokee Freedman
was considered a former slave who was set free within the Cherokee Nation.
Due to the racial discrimination of the time, if a person appeared to have
traits of African descent or admitted to have a “drop” of
African-American blood her or she was labeled as Cherokee Freedman and
sometimes rejected from tribal enrollment.
Discussion (Ideas
for the future in an APA style)
A history professor refers to political, social,
racial, and economic, tensions in America on the very last day of an American
history class that was named American Civilization Since the Late 19-Century
states “Don’t go yet! I want to leave you with one more observation from the
text. The impact from this victory on policy remains to be seen…
Most analysts agree, that the healing of the Nations divisions will be one of
the countries most formidable tasks one could argue that (um this is indeed a
difficult but not impossible task, those divisions ain’t been healed
yet and not every one wants to heal those colorful differences… but at
the end of the day, … for all of the difficulty of writing a history of the
present, sources are not all available… there are… involved of the telling of
the story who want to defend their actions…. I want to leave you with a
very naïve point or belief on my part if nothing else I remain committed ah to,
what I’m going to say is not even a belief perhaps may be it’s a hook, a very
solid understanding of the American past a can help us understand the present
better, or at least help us make some what more informed choices. As I
said, this maybe a naïve hook on my part, but it is what I do for a
living….(Arenesen lecture 5/2/2007 UIC).
Much of the works cited, referred to the defiance
of the majority from multiracial individuals from Native American, African
American and Euro American who fought the categorization of their history by an
oppressive society through hiding for survival and out right refusal to be
categorized. This defiance lead to a defensive and threatened foe to
assert more pressure of racial categorization on multiracial individuals.
Persons of color, multiracial, mixed blood folks were persecuted because they
did not want to conform to the dominant cultures labeling. Persons of
color stood for justice when the dominant society encroached upon their lands.
My own father exhibited acts of passing and
defiance. He and his brothers in a pre-civil rights south in the 20th
century spoke a made up language with his brothers at a movie theater acting
like they were foreigners in order to pass through White only set of doors.
My own father passing with my mother is another example with in my ancestry.
This act of omission by not telling myself and my siblings of our African
American heritage, and Jewish Canadian descent until I discovered this my
seeking out relative on my fathers side and trying to fulfill a life long
feeling of being compelled to seek my history out particularly my native
history, because it had been so fleeting in comparison to how I was taught
history in a middle class school system in the 1980’s.
During this research I have found many references
listed here to African Americans being mixed with Native Americans. For
the future it may be use full to examine state census information looking at
the reappearance of Native and possible African American disappearance and
reappearance, of certain races in certain time periods. It may also be helpful
to examine records from European countries that had a presence in early
America, such as France or Spain in hopes to recover more accurate data from
the history of the South Eastern United States. Also, it may be
helpful to look up overall economy and see if economical slumps and depressions
correlate with the persecution of mixed bloods through out time and
particularly those of mixed African American and Native American descent even
with in Native communities and seizing of agency from this population.
I am a descendent of Black Cherokee people and
this, in my opinion, implies landlessness. For early Southeastern history
peoples in the minorities and those in a lower socioeconomic bracket (but not
limited to) were needed together like the making of homemade bread. This
needing came from external and internal forces of human behavior through out
early American South eastern History. What weight shall these forces bear
onto this homemade bread that has been kneaded, given way to rise with yeast of
time and temperament, to be heated and presented at the table of humanity in
this era? May each ingredient bear fruits of peace onto our divided
Nation. May these fruitful offerings be an example of the joy that life
now and in the future can imaginably be.
References
Perdue, Theda. (2003).“Mixed Blood” Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press.
Sturm, Circe. (1998). “Blood Politics, Racial Classification, and Cherokee National Identity: The Trials and Tribulations of the Cherokee Freedman.” American Indian Quarterly 22, No. 28. (Winter-Spring): 230-258.
Spickard, Paul R (1989). Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth-Century America. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press.
McClure, Tony Mack. (1999). Cherokee Proud: A Guide for Tracing and Honoring Your Cherokee Ancestors. Somerville, TN: Chunannee Books.
Jahoda, Gloria. (1975). The Trail of Tears the Story of the American Indian Removals 1813-1855 New York, NY: Wing Books.
Blankenship, Bob. (1992). Cherokee Roots: Eastern Cherokee Rolls. Volume I. Cherokee NC: Bob Blankenship.
Miles, Tiya, Alicia. (2000). “Bone Of My Bone” Story of a Black-Cherokee Family 1790-1866. University of Minnesota. Graduate School. Copy right 2001: Miles, Tiya, Alicia.
Katz, William Loren. (1986). A Hidden Heritage: Black Indians. New York, NY: Simon Pluse.
Straus, Terry and Denene Dequintal, eds. (2005). Race, Roots and Relations Native and African Americans. Chic
ago: Albatross Press.
Yarbrough, Fay. A, (2003). “Those disgraceful and unnatural matches: Interracial sex in the Cherokee Society in the nineteenth century. School of Emory University Department of History. Copy right 2003: Yarbrough Fay Ann
[1] Gloria Jahoda. The Trail of Tears the Story of the American Indian Removals 1813-1855( New York, NY: Wing Books 1975).
[2] Tony Mack McClure. Cherokee Proud: A Guide for Tracing and Honoring Your Cherokee Ancestors. (Somerville, TN: Chunannee Books 1999)
[3] Gloria Jahoda. The Trail of Tears the Story of the American Indian Removals 1813-1855( New York, NY: Wing Books 1975).
[4] Gloria Jahoda. The Trail of Tears the Story of the American Indian Removals 1813-1855( New York, NY: Wing Books 1975).
[5] Gloria Jahoda. The Trail of Tears the Story of the American Indian Removals 1813-1855( New York, NY: Wing Books 1975).
[6] Paul R. Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[7] Paul R. Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[8] Paul R. Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[9] Paul R. Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[10] Paul R. Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[11] Paul R. Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[12] William Loren Katz. A Hidden Heritage: Black Indians A Hidden Heritage. (New York, NY: Simon Pluse 1986)
[13]Terry Straus, and Denene Dequintal, eds. Race, Roots and Relations Native and African Americans. Chicago: Albatross Press 2005)
[14] Theda Perdue. “Mixed Blood” Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. ( Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press 2003)
[15] Terry Straus, and Denene Dequintal, eds. Race, Roots and Relations Native and African Americans. Chicago: Albatross Press 2005)
[16] Fay A. Yarbrough. “Those disgraceful and unnatural matches: Interracial sex in the Cherokee Society in the nineteenth century. (School of Emory University Department of History: Yarbrough Fay Ann 2003)
[17] Fay A. Yarbrough. “Those disgraceful and unnatural matches: Interracial sex in the Cherokee Society in the nineteenth century. (School of Emory University Department of History: Yarbrough Fay Ann 2003)
[18] Theda Perdue. “Mixed Blood” Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press 2003)
[19] Alicia Tiya, Miles. Tiya, Alicia. “Bone Of My Bone” Story of a Black-Cherokee Family 1790-1866. ( University of Minnesota Graduate School. Copy right 2000)
[20] Alicia Tiya, Miles. Tiya, Alicia. “Bone Of My Bone” Story of a Black-Cherokee Family 1790-1866. ( University of Minnesota Graduate School. Copy right 2000)
[21] Alicia Tiya, Miles. Tiya, Alicia. “Bone Of My Bone” Story of a Black-Cherokee Family 1790-1866. ( University of Minnesota Graduate School. Copy right 2000)
[22] Bob Blankenship. Cherokee Roots: Eastern Cherokee Rolls. Volume I. (Cherokee NC: Bob Blankenship 1992).
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